Early studies on leadership were done at Ohio State University using the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire to identify the leader's observable behaviors. Ohio State study on leadership found two behavioral characteristics of leadership - people-oriented (consideration) and task-oriented (initiating structure) leadership style.
As leadership studies that were aimed at identifying the appropriate traits didn't yield any conclusive results,, Stogdill (1957) at the Bureau of Business Research at Ohio State University initiated ‘a series of researches on leadership in 1945. He, along with his colleagues, studied leader behavior in numerous types of groups and situations by using a “Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)”.
The Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) was developed by the staff of the Personnel Research Board, The Ohio State University, as one project of the Ohio State Leadership Studies, directed by Dr. Carroll L. Shartle. LBDQ constituted of a list of 150 statements from their generated responses that included 1,800 statements. The resulting questionnaire is now well-known as the “LBDQ” or the “Leaders Behavior Description Questionnaire”. The LBDQ is published by the Bureau of Business Research, College of Commerce and Administration, The Ohio State University; Columbus, OH. The version presented below was copyrighted in 1957 and may still be ordered if you wish to use it.
The LBDQ’s list of questions was designed to measure nine different behavioral leadership dimensions. The LBDQ provides a technique whereby group members may describe the behavior of the leader, or leaders, in any type of group or organization, provided the followers have had an opportunity to observe the leader in action as a leader of their group. LBDQ questions given below are only for research and knowledge purposes.
SN |
Leader Behavior Description |
Factors |
1 |
S/he does personal favors for group members. |
Consideration |
2 |
S/he makes her/his attitudes clear to the group. A B C D E |
Initiating Structure |
3 |
S/he does little things to make it pleasant to be a member of the group. |
Consideration |
4 |
S/he tries out his new ideas with the group. |
Initiating Structure |
5 |
S/he acts as the real leader of the group. |
Not Used |
6 |
S/he is easy to understand. |
Consideration |
7 |
S/he rules with an iron hand. |
Initiating Structure |
8 |
S/he finds time to listen to group members. |
Consideration |
9 |
S/he criticizes poor work. |
Initiating Structure |
10 |
S/he gives advance notice of changes. |
Not Used |
11 |
S/he speaks in a manner not to be questioned. |
Initiating Structure |
12 |
S/he keeps to her/himself. |
Consideration |
13 |
S/he looks out for the personal welfare of individual group members. |
Consideration |
14 |
S/h assigns group members to particular tasks. |
Initiating Structure |
15 |
S/he is the spokesman of the group. |
Not Used |
16 |
S/he schedules the work to be done. |
Initiating Structure |
17 |
S/he maintains definite standards of performance. |
Initiating Structure |
18 |
S/he refuses to explain her/his actions. |
Consideration |
19 |
S/he keeps the group informed. |
Not Used |
20 |
S/he acts without consulting the group. |
Consideration |
21 |
S/he backs up the members in their actions. |
Consideration |
22 |
S/he emphasizes the meeting of deadlines. |
Initiating Structure |
23 |
S/he treats all group members as her/his equals. |
Consideration |
24 |
S/he encourages the use of uniform procedures. |
Initiating Structure |
25 |
S/he gets what s/he asks for from her/his superiors. |
Not Used |
26 |
S/he is willing to make changes. |
Consideration |
27 |
S/he makes sure that her/his part in the organization is understood by group members. |
Initiating Structure |
28 |
S/he is friendly and approachable. |
Consideration |
29 |
S/he asks that group members follow standard rules and regulations. |
Initiating Structure |
30 |
S/he fails to take necessary action. |
Not Used |
31 |
S/he makes group members feel at ease when talking with them. |
Consideration |
32 |
S/he lets group members know what is expected of them. |
Initiating Structure |
33 |
S/he speaks as the representative of the group. |
Not Used |
34 |
S/he puts suggestions made by the group into action. |
Consideration |
35 |
S/he sees to it that group members are working up to capacity. |
Initiating Structure |
36 |
S/he lets other people take away her/his leadership in the group. |
Not Used |
37 |
S/he gets her/his superiors to act for the welfare of the group. |
Not Used |
38 |
S/he gets group approval in important matters before going ahead. |
Consideration |
39 |
S/he sees to it that the work of the group members is coordinated. |
Initiating Structure |
40 |
S/he keeps the group working together as a team. |
Not Used |
The studies were conducted on Air Force Commanders and members of bomber crews, officers, non-commissioned personnel, civilian administrators in the Navy Department, manufacturing supervisors, executives, teachers, principals and school superintendents and leaders of various civilian groups. As part of the study, the LBDQ was administered to these various groups of individuals which ranged from college students and their administrators, private companies including military personnel. One of the primary purposes of the study was to identify common leadership behaviors. The LBDQ was administered in a wide variety of situations.
They did not have any satisfactory definition of leadership. They also did not think leadership is synonymous with `good' leadership. After compiling and analyzing the results, the study led to the conclusion that there were two groups of behaviors that were strongly correlated. The Ohio State studies examined leaders’ task versus people orientation. Two dimensions of; leadership continually emerging from the study were `consideration' and the other was ‘initiating structure’. These were defined as Consideration (People Oriented behavioral Leaders) and Initiating Structure (Task Oriented Leaders).
Consideration reflects the extent to which individuals are likely to have job, relationship characterized by mutual respect for subordinates, ideas and consideration of subordinates, feelings. You may like to describe it as the behavior of the leader indicating friendship, mutual trust, respect and warmth in the relationship between the leader and his group members. The people oriented leaders are focusing their behaviors on ensuring that the inner needs of the people are satisfied. Thus they will seek to motivate their staff through emphasizing the human relation. People oriented leaders still focus on the task and the results; they just achieve them through different means.
Examples of observed behavior of the leader under consideration are as follows:
Consideration:
Initiating Structure – Task Oriented:
Initiating structure reflects the extent to which individuals are likely to define and structure their roles and those of their subordinates towards goal attainment. In other words, it is the behavior of the leader which deals with the relationship between him and the work-group and tries to establish well-defined patterns of organization, channels of communication and method of procedure. The task concerned leaders are focusing their behaviors on the organizational structure, the operating procedures (S.O.P.) and they like to keep control. Task-oriented leaders are still concerned with their staff motivation; however it's not their main concern.
Examples of observed behavior of the leader under initiating structure are as follows:
Initiating Structure:
In the above example of items check how frequently as a leader you engage yourself by marking A(Always), O(Occasionally) or N(Never), against each one of the items in the list of statements given above. This may help you to know your own style of leadership. One can do this exercise by observing and judging the behavior of the leader in a work situation.
Conceptually, the Ohio State studies helped to shift the focus of the field from a universal trait approach to a more situational, behavioral-based view. The Ohio State studies contributed a model of programmatic construct, validation and investigation, and provided future researchers with useful research instruments. These studies, attempted to find what behaviors substantially accounted for most of the leadership behavior described by employees. Beginning with over a thousand dimensions, researchers narrowed the list to two explained above. Both factors were found to be associated with effective leadership. Followers of leaders who are high in consideration were more satisfied with their jobs; more motivated, and had more respect for their leader. Leaders who were high in initiating structure typically had higher levels of group and organization productivity along with more positive performance evaluations. The findings of the LBDQ indicate that a successful leader will possess a strong ability to be considerate of others, as well as an ability to initiate structure. In the workplace this might be a manager who is very personable and understanding, but is also able to set expectations and guidelines that require workers to be motivated, efficient, and able to produce high-quality work.
Rensis Likert studied the patterns and styles of managers and developed four management systems known as Likert's management systems. These styles developed by him are known as Likert management systems. System 1 - Exploitative Authoritative; System 2 - Benevolent Authoritative; System 3 - Consultative and System 4 - Participative.
The Psychodynamic Approach to leadership focuses on leaders building an understanding of their personality characteristics to know why they act or react in certain ways. Psychodynamics theory aims to explain the dynamics of human behavior in which lies the essence of leadership, by analyzing various motives that govern a person's behavior. This information can be used to develop leaders and followers by understanding their responses based on their personalities.
Transactional Analysis also is known as the theory of human personality was proposed by Eric Berne in the 1950s. This theory of transactional leadership defines three different ego states in a person who engages in transactions with another person's ego states. These three ego states refer to major parts of an individual's personality and reflect an entire system of thought, feeling, and behavior.
McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y
McGregor created Theory X and Theory Y of human work motivation and explained two styles of management known as authoritarian (Theory X) and participative (Theory Y). Theory X management assumes most people will attempt to avoid work whereas Theory Y managers trust their people to take ownership of their work.
Socio-technical theory of leadership focus on the presence of two subsystems in every organization, the interrelatedness of social and technical aspects of an organization. Theory pertains to the social aspects of people and technical aspects of an organization, which means structure and processes within the organization.
Leadership traits refer to personal qualities that define effective leaders. Here are the major leadership qualities that can make someone a good leader. Five key traits that are common in leaders can be learned and sharpened with time.
The open systems model of leadership acknowledges the influence of the environment on organizations. An open system regularly exchanges feedback with its external environment. The environment also provides key resources that are necessary to sustain and lead to change and survival. Leadership in an open system should focus on influence, open communication, and patterns to control expanding the number of variables created by external dynamics.
According to Environmental theories of leadership, a leader needs to deal effectively with environmental complexities and lead in a certain style as a result of environmental responses. Environmental influenced leadership demand leaders to learn how to adjust environmental factors. Leaders also have the responsibility of creating the right kind of environment for their followers by focusing on environmental factors and pressures.
Life cycle theory of Leadership
Situational Leadership Theory was first introduced in 1969 as the life cycle theory of leadership. This theory suggests that type of leadership style appropriate in a given situation depends on the maturity of the follower. As per life cycle theory, leader need to match the leadership style according to the situation and leader behavior varies as the group matures.
Team leadership theory is a recent leadership theory that does not discriminate between the leader and the other team members. The approach considers contributions from each team member to be critical for organizational success. This approach focused on the overall team effectiveness and team problems are diagnosed and action is taken to remediate weakness. This approach provides for taking corrective action when the leader deems necessary.
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